自我肯定偏誤之心理機制探討｜國立中央大學博碩士論文系統

簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

回結果列表

研究生：	林穎青 Ying-Ching Lin
論文名稱：	自我肯定偏誤之心理機制探討 Feeling Better or Staying Miserable: Why Self-Positivity?
指導教授：	林建煌 Chien-Huang Lin
口試委員:
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	管理學院 - 企業管理學系 Department of Business Administration
畢業學年度：	91
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	113
中文關鍵詞：	自我肯定偏誤、自尊、參考值、樂觀主義、順序效果
外文關鍵詞：	Optimism, Base-rates, Self-esteem, Self-positivity, Order Effect
相關次數：	點閱：14 下載：0
分享至:	分享至facebook 分享至twitter

查詢本校圖書館目錄查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統勘誤回報

本篇文章主要在驗證不同情況下的自我肯定偏誤是否存在，討論其強韌度與偏誤的方向，並探討自我肯定偏誤的心理機制—維持自尊的重要性。本篇文章分成兩個部分，第一部分包含三個不同的實驗驗證自我肯定偏誤的心理機制。實驗一的結果發現當降低癌症發生的自我控制力並提供受測者癌症發生的參考值時，即能消除自我肯定偏誤的情形。實驗二將實驗一的情境延伸至四個不同事件—包含正、負面事件與高低控制力事件。實驗二結果發現，參考值的提供只有在低控事件會影響對自我的衡量，並降低偏誤的情形，但在高控事件中，參考值的提供卻會增加並惡化偏誤的情形。實驗三，加入了個人樂觀/悲觀的個性差異變數，結果顯示，樂觀者在提供了參考值之後，只有在低控事件願意依據參考值去修改對自我的衡量，而在高控事件，參考值對自我衡量不會產生影響；而悲觀者無論在高控或低控的事件，都願意依據參考值去修正對自我的衡量。整體而言，三個實驗告訴我們，造成自我肯定偏誤的原因乃是為了要維護自尊的理由。第二部分--實驗4則是以不同的方法驗證自我肯定偏誤的心理機制。和低控事件相比，高控事件代表和自尊攸關的事件，因此會引發出較大的自我肯定偏誤的情形。然而，即使是較不代表自尊的低控事件，自我肯定偏誤卻會因為衡量順序的不同，而產生不同的變化。先衡量”自我”時，自我肯定偏誤的情形並不明顯，但若先衡量”他人”時，則會產生自我肯定偏誤的情形。實驗4的結果證實了前三個實驗結果的強韌度，並再次反映了自我肯定偏誤乃是為提升並維持自尊而產生。

This paper studies the presence, resilience and direction of the self-positivity bias under various conditions to examine the role of self-esteem maintenance as an important antecedent for the bias. There are two parts in this paper. First part includs three studies which examining the reason underlining the self-positivity bias. Study 1 shows that perceptions of the controllability of cancer as well as presence of base-rate information can be contextually manipulated, and together eliminate the self-positivity bias in perceptions of the risk of cancer. Study 2 shows the same effects using four life events that differ in terms of valence and perceived controllability: base-rate information affects self-estimates for uncontrollable life events, reducing the self-positivity bias, but does not affect self-estimates for controllable events. In Study 3, we show that this effect only applies for optimistic individuals who fail to incorporate base-rate information to update self-perceptions for controllable events. Pessimists, on the other hand, use base-rates to update self-estimates irrespective of the controllability of the event. Overall, the pattern suggests that self-positivity is attenuated in conditions that implicate self-esteem. Another supplement study examines the underlying reason behind the self-positivity bias. In the second part of this paper, a single study --study 4 replicates the findings of previous three studies. As events perceived to be controllable implicate self-esteem more so than less controllable ones, they are more prone to self-positivity effects. On the other hand, as less controllable events do not implicate self-esteem, only when the order-of-elicitation cues comparative (versus absolute) judgments about the self, does the self-positivity effect emerge. When information about “self” is asked first, the bias is attenuated, but when others’ estimates are elicited prior to self-estimates, the bias re-emerges even for uncontrollable events. Implications for health marketing are offered.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT	i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS	iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS	iv
LIST OF TABLES 	vii
LIST OF FIGURES 	viii
CHAPTER 1	INTRODUCTION 	1
1.1	MOTIVATION	1
1.2	RESEARCH PROPOSITIONS	2
1.3	THESIS STRUCTURE	4
CHAPTER 2	THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK	6
2.1	SELF-POSITIVITY BIAS	6
2.2	THREE ROUTES TO SELF-POSITIVITY	8
2.3	THE MODERATING EFFECT OF PERCEIVED CONTROL	9
2.4	THE USE OF BASE RATES	10
2.5	VALENCE	12
2.6	MODERATING EFFECT OF BASE RATE INFORMATION
ON OPTIMISTS AND PESSIMIST ESTIMATES	13
CHAPTER 3	STUDY 1: CAN SELF-POSITIVITY BE ELIMINATED?	17
3.1	METHODOLOGY	17
3.2	RESULTS	19
3.3	DISCUSSIONS	22
CHAPTER 4	STUDY 2: EXTENSION TO LIFE EVENTS	26
4.1	PILOT STUDY	26
4.2	METHDOLOGY	28
4.3	RESULTS	29
4.4	DISCUSSIONS	34
CHAPTER 5	STUDY 3: THE MODERATING ROLE OF OPTIMISM
ON THE USE OF BASE-RATE INFORMATION	38
5.1	METHODOLOGY	38
5.2	RESULTS	40
5.3	DISCUSSIONS	47
CHAPTER 6	SUPPLEMENTARY STUDY: THE IMPLICATION OF SELF-ESTEEM	51
6.1	THEORETICAL FREMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES	51
6.2	METHODOLOGY	54
6.3	RESULTS	55
6.3.1 Manipulation Checks 	55
6.3.2 Overall Analysis	56
6.3.3 Self Positivity Bias	56
6.3.4 Order Effects	58
6.3.5. Post Hoc Analysis of Lottery	59
6.4	DISCUSSIONS	60
6.4.1 Theoretical Contributions 	60
CHAPTER 7	GENERAL DISCUSSIONS	65
7.1	SUMMARY	65
7.2	THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS	66
7.3	IMPLICATIONS FOR CONSUMER WELFARE	70
7.4	STUDY LIMITATIONS AND AREA FOR FUTURE RESEARCH	71
REFERENCES	73
APPENDIX A	QUESTIONNAIRES OF STUDY 1	81
APPENDIX B	QUESTIONNAIRES OF STUDY 2 	87
APPENDIX C	QUESTIONNAIRES OF STUDY 3	98
APPENDIX D	QUESTIONNAIRES OF STUDY 4	106
LIST OF TABLES
Page
TALBE 2-1	Summary of Predictions for the Self-positivity Bias
as a Function of the Type of Event, Use of Base-rates,
and Level of Individual Optimism	16
TALBE 3-1	Mean Perception of the Risk of Cancer by
Target by Condition: Study 1 	24
TABLE 4-1	Estimated Likelihood of an Event for Self and
Others in the Presence/ Absence of Base-Rate
information for Four Events: Study 2	36
TABLE 5-1	Means of Estimates of Likelihood by Condition: Study 3	49
TABLE 6-1	Means by Condition: Study 4	63
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
FIGURE 3-1	Study 1 Results: Divergence of Self Estimates
from Base-Rates	25
FIGURE 3-2	Study 1 Results: Divergence of Other Estimates
from Base-Rates	25
FIGURE 4-1	Study 2 Results: Estimates of Difference of
Estimates of Own Likelihood from Base-Rate	37
FIGURE 5-1	Study 4 Results: Means by Condition	50
FIGURE 6-1	Study 4 Results: Order of Elicitation Affects
Self Judgments for Four Events	64

                                

REFERENCES
Ackermann, Ruby E. and Robert J. DeRubies (1991), “Is Depressive Realism Real?” Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 565-584.
Alicke, Mark D., Mary L. Klotz, David L. Breitenbecher, and Tricia J. Yurak (1995), “Personal Contact, Individuation, and the Better-than-average-effect,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 (May), 213-226.
Alloy, Lauren B. and Lyn Y. Abramson (1979), “Judgments of Contingency in depressed and non-depressed students: Sadder but Wiser?” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108 (December), 441-485.
Bauman, Laurie J. and Karolynn Siegel (1987), “Misperception among Gay Men of the Risk for AIDS Associated with Their Sexual Behavior,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17 (March), 329-350.
Beck, Aaron T. (1967), Depression: Clinical, Experimental, and Theoretical Aspects, New York: Harper and Row.
________ (1976), Cognitive Therapy and Emotional Disorders, New York: International Universities Press.
Block, Lauren G. and Punam A. Keller (1995), “When to Accentuate the Negative: The Effects of Perceived Efficacy and Message Framing on Intentions to Perform a Health-Related Behavior," Journal of Marketing Research, 32 (May), 192-203.
Brown, Jonathon D. (1986), “Evaluations of Self and Others: Self-enhancement Biases in Social Judgments,” Social Cognition, 4 (4), 353-376.
________ (1990), “Evaluating One''s Abilities: Shortcuts and Stumbling Blocks on the Road to Self-Knowledge,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26 (March), 149-167.
Chang, Edward C. (1996), “Evidence for the Cultural Specificity of Pessimism in Asians and Caucasians: A Test of the General Negativity Hypothesis,” Personality and Individual Differences, 21 (November), 819-822.
Darvill, Thomas J. and Ronald C. Johnson (1991), “Optimism and Perceived Control of Life Events as Related to Personality,” Personality & Individual Differences, 12 (9), 951-954.
Dolinski, Dariusz, Wojciech Gromski, and Ewa Zawisza (1987), “Unrealistic Pessimism,” Journal of Social Psychology, 127 (October), 511-516.
Drake, Roger A. (1987), “Conceptions of Own versus Others’ Outcomes: Manipulation by Monaural Attentional Orientation,” European Journal of Social Psychology, 17 (July), 373-375.
Dunning, David, Judith A. Meyerowitz and, Amy D. Holzberg (1989), “Ambiguity and Self-Evaluation: the Role of Idiosyncratic Trait Definition in Self-serving Assessments of Ability,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57 (December), 1082-1090.
Feldman, Jack M. and John G. Lynch (1988), “Self-generated Validity and Other Effects of Measurement on Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(August), 421-435.
Fontaine, Kevin R. and Sylvia Smith (1995), “Optimistic Bias in Cancer Risk Perception: A Cross-national Study,” Psychological Reports, 77 (August), 143-146.
Gerrard, Meg, Frederick X. Gibbons, Monica Reis-Bergan, and Daniel W. Russell (2000), “Self-Esteem, Self-Serving Cognitions, and Health Risk Behavior,” Journal of Personality, 68 (December), 1177-1201.
Greenwald, Anthony G. (1980), “The Totalitarian Ego: Fabrication and Revision of Personal History,” American Psychologist, 35 (July), 603-618.
Harris, Peter (1996), “Sufficient Grounds for Optimism? the Relationship between Perceived Controllability and Optimistic Bias,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 15 (Spring), 9-52.
Heckhausen, Jutta and Joachim Krueger (1993), “Developmental Expectations for the Self and Most Other People: Age-grading in Three Functions of Social Comparisons,” Developmental Psychology, 29 (May), 539-548.
Heine, Steven J. and Darrin R. Lehman (1995), “Cultural Variation in Unrealistic Optimism: Does the West Feel more Invulnerable than the East?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 (April), 595-607.
Helweg-Larsen, Marie and James A. Shepperd (2001), “Do Moderators of the Optimistic Bias Affect Personal or Target Risk Estimates? A Review of the Literature”, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(1), 74-95.
Hoch, Stephen J. (1988), “Who Do We Know: Predicting the Interests and Opinions of the American Consumer,” Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (December), 315-324.
Hofstede, Geert H. (1990), Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, London, England: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Hoorens, Vera (1996), “Self-favoring Biases for Positive and Negative Characteristics: Independent Phenomena?” Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 53-67.
________ (1994), “Unrealistic Optimism in Social Comparison of Health and Safety Risks in D. Rutter (Ed.), The social psychology of Health and safety. Aldershop: Avebury, 153-174.
________ and Bunnk, Bram P. (1993), “Social Comparison of Health Risks: Locus of Control, the Person-positivity Bias, and Unrealistic Optimism,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23 (February), 291-302.
Joseph, Jill G., Susanne A. Montgomery, Carol-Ann Emmons, John P. Kirscht, Ronald. C. Kessler, David. G. Ostrow, Camille. B. Wortman, Kirsty K. O’Brien, Marika Eller, and Suzann Eshleman (1987), “Perceived Risk of AIDS: Assessing the Behavioral and Psychosocial Consequences in a Cohort of Gay Men,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1 (Mar), 231-250.
Keller, Punam A., Isaac M. Lipkus and Barbara K. Rimer (2002), “Depressive Realism and Health Risk Accuracy: the Negative Consequences of Positive Mood,” Journal of Consumer Research, 29 (June), 57-69.
Kos, Julie M. and Valerie A. Clarke (2001), “Is Optimistic Bias Influenced by Control or Delay?” Health Education Research, 16 (October), 533-540.
Krueger, Joachim and Jutta Heckhausen (1993), “Personality Development across the Adult Life Span: Subjective Conceptions versus Cross-sectional Contrasts,” The Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 48 (May), 100-108.
Kuiper, Nicholas A. and Michael R. MacDonald (1982), “Self and other Perception in Mild Depressives,” Social Cognition, 1 (3), 223-239.
________ and Paul A. Derry (1983), “Schematic Processing and Self-reference in Clinical Depression,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90 (August), 286-297.
Kunda, Ziva (1987), “Motivated Inference: Self-serving Generation and Evaluation of Causal Theories,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (October), 636-647.
________ (1990) “The Case for Motivated Reasoning,” Psychological Bulletin, 108 (3), 480-498.
Larwood, Laurie (1978), “Swine Flu: A Field Study of Self-serving Bias,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17 (July), 231-250.
Langer, Ellen J. (1975), “The Illusion of Control,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 32 (August), 311-328.
Lee, Christina (1989), “Perceptions of Immunity to Disease in an Adult Smokers,” Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 12 (June), 267-277.
Luce, Mary F. and Barbara E. Kahn (1999), “Avoidance or Vigilance? The Psychology of False-Positive Test Results,” Journal of Consumer Research, 26 (December), 242-259.
Menon, Geeta, Lauren G. Block and Suresh Ramanathan (2002), “We’re at as Much Risk as we’re Led to Believe: Effects of Message Cues on Judgments of Health Risk,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (March), 533-549.
________, Priya Raghubir, and Norbert Schwarz (1995), “Behavioral Frequency Judgments: An Accessibility-Diagnosticity Framework,” Journal of Consumer Research, 22 (September), 212-228.
Otten, Wilma and Joop van der Pligt (1996), “Context Effects in the Measurement of Comparative Optimism in Probability Judgments”, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,15(Spring), 80-101.
Perloff, Linda S. (1983), “Perceptions of Vulnerability to Victimization,” Journal of Social Issues, 39 (Summer), 41-61.
________ and Philip Brickman (1982), “False Consensus and False Uniqueness: Biases in Perception of Similarity,” Academic Psychology Bulletin, 4 (November), 475-494.
________ and Barbara K. Fetzer (1986), “Self-other Judgments and Perceived Vulnerability to Victimization,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50 (March), 502-510.
Pyszczynski, Tom and Jeff Greenberg (1987), “Toward an Integration of Cognitive and Motivational Perspectives on Social Inference: A Biased Hypothesis-testing Model, in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 20, ed. Leonard Berkowitz, et al. CA: Academic Press, 297-34.
Raghubir, Priya and Gita V. Johar (1999), “Hong Kong 1997 in Context”, Public Opinion Quarterly, 63(Winter), 543-565.
________ and Geeta Menon (1998), “AIDS and Me, Never the Twain Shall Meet: the Effects of Information Accessibility on Judgments of Risk and Advertising Effectiveness,” Journal of Consumer Research, 25 (June), 52-63.
Regan, Pamela C., Mark Snyder and Saul M. Kassin (1995), ”Unrealistic Optimism: Self-enhancement or Person Positivity?”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(October), 1073-1082.
Robertson, Leon S. (1977), “Car Crashes: Perceived Vulnerability and Willingness to Pay for Crash Protection,” Journal of Community Health, 3 (Fall): 136-141.
Schneider, Stephen G., Shelley E. Taylor, Margaret E. Kemeny and Constance Hammen (1991), “AIDS-related Factors Predictive of Suicidal Ideation of Low and High Intent among Gay and Bisexual Men,” Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 21(Winter), 313-328.
Sedikides, Constantine, Gaertner, L. and Toguchi, Y. (2003). Pancultural Self-enhancement, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84 (1), January, 60-79.
Skinner, Ellen A. (1995), Perceived control, motivation, and coping, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Snyder, C. Richard (1985), “Collaborative Companions: The Relationship of Self-Deception and Excuse Making,” In Self-deception and self-understanding, ed. Maurice W. Martin, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 35-51.
Sudman, Seymour, Norman M. Bradburn and Norbert Schwarz (1996), Thinking about Answers: the Application of Cognitive Processes to Survey Methodolog,. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Swann, William B., John J. Griffin, Steven C. Predmore, and Bebe Gaines (1987), “The Cognitive-Affective Crossfire: When Self-Consistency Confronts Self-Enhancement,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (5), 881-889.
Taylor, Shelley E. and Jonathon D. Brown (1988), “Illusion and Well-being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health,” Psychological Bulletin, 103 (March), 193-210.
________and Jonathon D. Brown (1994), “Positive illusions and well-being revisited: Separating fact form fiction,” Psychological Bulletin, 116 (December), 21-27.
Tversky, Amos and Daniel Kahneman (1974), “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases,” Science, 185, 1124-1131.
________and Daniel Kahneman (1998), "Evidential Impact of Base Rates," in Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, Kahneman, Daniel, Paul Slovic and Amos Tversky, eds., New York: Cambridge, 1998, 153-160.
Weinstein, Neil D. (1980), “Unrealistic Optimism about Future Life Events,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39 (November), 806-820.
________ and Elizabeth Lachendro (1982), “Egocentrism as a Source of Unrealistic Optimism,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8 (June), 195-200.
________(1984), “Why It won’t Happen to Me: Perceptions of Risk Factors and Susceptibility,” Health Psychology, 3 (5), 431-457.
________ (1989), “Unrealistic Biases about Personal Risks,” Science, 246, 1232-1233.
van der Velde, Frank W., Christa Hooykaas and Joop van der Pligt (1992), “Risk Perception and Behavior: Pessimism, Realism, and Optimism about AIDS-related Health Behavior,” Psychology & Health, 6(January), 23-38.
Zakay, Dan (1984), “The Influence of Perceived Event’s Controllability on its Subjective Occurrence Probability,” The Psychological Record, 34, 233-240.

簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

相關論文