我們在 COSMOS-CANDELS 區域進行了 SCUBA-2 450 微米的觀測，這是 JCMT 大型計劃 SCUBA-2 超深成像 EAO 巡天（SCUBA-2 Ultra Deep Imaging EAO Survey，STUDIES）的一部分。我們的 450 微米和 850 微米的觀測影像覆蓋了 450 平方角分的面積。在每張影像的最深區域，我們達到了儀器雜訊級分別為 σ_450 = 0.59 mJy beam^-1 和 σ_850 = 0.09 mJy beam^-1。對應的致淆雜訊級在 450 微米和 850 微米分別估計為 0.65 和 0.36 mJy beam^-1，而經驗法則下的致淆極限則為 3.4 和 2.0 mJy。在 4（3.5）σ 閾值之上，我們在 450 微米波段檢測到 360（479）個源，在 850 微米波段檢測到 237（314）個源。我們推導了 450 微米波段最深的空場數量統計，覆蓋了 2 到 43 mJy 的通量密度範圍。這些結果與其他 SCUBA-2 空場和重力透鏡星系團的觀測一致，但低於各種模型預測的數量。我們將這些數據與其他區域進行比較，發現在 6 角分尺度上，450 微米波段的區域間差異與帕松雜訊一致，因此在此尺度上沒有明顯的二維聚集現象的證據。此外，我們推導出 450 微米波段下至 2.1 mJy 的累積表面亮度為 57.3^{+1.0}_{-6.2} Jy deg^-2，以由 COBE 和 Planck 測量的數據為基準，這相當於貢獻了 450 微米星系背景光（EBL）的 (41±4)%。我們的結果表明，450 微米波段的 EBL 可能在 0.08^{+0.09}_{-0.08} mJy 完全解析，這有望通過極深的重力透鏡星系團觀測和新一代大口徑次毫米望遠鏡實現。此外，我們利用高解析度的干涉儀源目錄，識別了 450 微米源的對應體。為了在 COSMOS 場內擴展有限的 450 微米樣本，我們開發了一種基於光學到近紅外光度測量的機器學習方法。這種方法的精確度達到了 0.97±0.02，召回率達到 0.99±0.01。我們還展示了 JWST NIRCam 4.4 微米影像的處理過程，這對於近紅外對應體的識別有很大幫助。

We present confusion-limited SCUBA-2 450-μm observations in the COSMOS-CANDELS region as part of the JCMT Large Program, SCUBA-2 Ultra Deep Imaging EAO Survey (STUDIES). Our maps at 450 μm and 850 μm cover an area of 450 arcmin^2. We achieved instrumental noise levels of σ_450 = 0.59 mJy beam^-1 and σ_850 = 0.09 mJy beam^-1 in the deepest area of each map. The corresponding confusion noise levels are estimated to be 0.65 and 0.36 mJy beam^-1, and the confusion limits at the rule-of-thumb source density is 3.4 and 2.0 mJy at 450 and 850 μm, respectively.
Above the 4 (3.5) σ threshold, we detected 360 (479) sources at 450 μm and 237 (314) sources at 850 μm. We derive the deepest blank-field number counts at 450 μm, covering the flux-density range of 2 to 43 mJy. These are in agreement with other SCUBA-2 blank-field and lensing-cluster observations, but are lower than various model counts. We compare the counts with those in other fields and find that the field-to-field variance observed at 450 μm at the R=6 arcmin scale is consistent with Poisson noise, so there is no evidence of strong 2-D clustering at this scale. Additionally, we derive the integrated surface brightness at 450 μm down to 2.1 mJy to be 57.3^{+1.0}_{-6.2} Jy deg^-2, contributing to (41±4)% of the 450-μm extragalactic background light (EBL) measured by COBE and Planck. Our results suggest that the 450-μm EBL may be fully resolved at 0.08^{+0.09}_{-0.08} mJy, which extremely deep lensing-cluster observations and next-generation submillimeter instruments with large aperture sizes may be able to achieve.
In addition, we identified counterparts for our 450-μm sources using high-resolution interferometric source catalogs. To extend limited 450-μm sample across the COSMOS field, we developed a tentative machine learning method based on optical to near-infrared (NIR) photometry. This method achieved a precision of 0.97±0.02 and a recall of 0.99±0.01. We also present the data reduction process for the JWST NIRCam 4.4-μm mosaic image, aiding NIR counterpart identification.

Adscheid, S., Magnelli, B., Liu, D., et al. 2024, A3COSMOS & A3GOODSS: Continuum Source Catalogues and Multi-band Number Counts, arxiv:2403.03125
Aird, J., Coil, A. L., Georgakakis, A., et al. 2015, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 451, 1892
An, F. X., Simpson, J. M., Smail, I., et al. 2019, The Astrophysical Journal, 886, 48
Assef, R. J., Kochanek, C. S., Ashby, M. L. N., et al. 2011, The Astrophysical Journal, 728, 56
Bagley, M. B., Finkelstein, S. L., Koekemoer, A. M., et al. 2023, The Astrophysical Journal, 946, L12
Barger, A. J., Cowie, L. L., Blair, A. H., & Jones, L. H. 2022, The Astrophysical Journal, 934, 56
Barger, A. J., Cowie, L. L., & Richards, E. A. 2000, The Astronomical Journal, 119, 2092
Barger, A. J., Cowie, L. L., & Sanders, D. B. 1999, The Astrophysical Journal, 518, L5
Barger, A. J., Cowie, L. L., Sanders, D. B., et al. 1998, Nature, 394, 248
Barger, A. J., Cowie, L. L., Chen, C.-C., et al. 2014, The Astrophysical Journal, 784, 9
Baugh, C. M., Lacey, C. G., Frenk, C. S., et al. 2005, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 356, 1191
Bellstedt, S., Robotham, A. S. G., Driver, S. P., et al. 2020, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 498, 5581
Béthermin, M., Daddi, E., Magdis, G., et al. 2012, The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 757, L23
Béthermin, M., Wu, H.-Y., Lagache, G., et al. 2017, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 607, A89
Béthermin, M., Fudamoto, Y., Ginolfi, M., et al. 2020, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 643, A2
Birkin, J. E., Weiss, A., Wardlow, J. L., et al. 2021, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 501, 3926
Blain, A. W., Chapman, S. C., Smail, I., & Ivison, R. 2004, The Astrophysical Journal, 611, 725
Boquien, M., Burgarella, D., Roehlly, Y., et al. 2019, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 622, A103
Bothwell, M. S., Smail, I., Chapman, S. C., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 429, 3047
Burgarella, D., Buat, V., & Iglesias-Páramo, J. 2005, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 360, 1413
Capak, P., Cowie, L. L., Hu, E. M., et al. 2004, The Astronomical Journal, 127, 180
Casey, C. M., Narayanan, D., & Cooray, A. 2014, Physics Reports, 541, 45
Casey, C. M., Chen, C.-C., Cowie, L. L., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 436, 1919
Casey, C. M., Cooray, A., Capak, P., et al. 2015, The Astrophysical Journal, 808, L33
Casey, C. M., Kartaltepe, J. S., Drakos, N. E., et al. 2023, The Astrophysical Journal, 954, 31
Chang, Y.-Y., Ferraro, N., Wang, W.-H., et al. 2018, The Astrophysical Journal, 865, 103
Chapin, E. L., Berry, D. S., Gibb, A. G., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 430, 2545
Chapman, S. C., Blain, A. W., Ivison, R. J., & Smail, I. R. 2003, Nature, 422, 695
Chen, C.-C., Cowie, L. L., Barger, A. J., et al. 2013a, The Astrophysical Journal, 762, 81
—. 2013b, The Astrophysical Journal, 776, 131
Chen, C.-C., Smail, I., Swinbank, A. M., et al. 2016a, The Astrophysical Journal, 831, 91
Chen, C.-C., Smail, I., Ivison, R. J., et al. 2016b, The Astrophysical Journal, 820, 82
Chen, C.-C., Liao, C.-L., Smail, I., et al. 2022, The Astrophysical Journal, 929, 159
Chen, J., Ivison, R. J., Zwaan, M. A., et al. 2023, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 518, 1378
Chen, T., & Guestrin, C. 2016, XGBoost: A Scalable Tree Boosting System, doi:10.48550/ arXiv.1603.02754
Condon, J. J. 1974, The Astrophysical Journal, 188, 279
Cooray, A. 2016, Royal Society Open Science, 3, 150555
Cowie, L. L., Barger, A. J., Bauer, F. E., et al. 2022, The Astrophysical Journal, 939, 5 Cowie, L. L., Barger, A. J., Hsu, L.-Y., et al. 2017, The Astrophysical Journal, 837, 139 Cowie, L. L., Barger, A. J., & Kneib, J.-P. 2002, The Astronomical Journal, 123, 2197
Cowie, L. L., Barger, A. J., Wang, W. H., & Williams, J. P. 2009, The Astrophysical Journal, 697, L122
Cowie, L. L., González-López, J., Barger, A. J., et al. 2018, The Astrophysical Journal, 865, 106
Cowley, W. I., Lacey, C. G., Baugh, C. M., & Cole, S. 2015, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 446, 1784
Cowley, W. I., Lacey, C. G., Baugh, C. M., et al. 2019, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 487, 3082
Currie, M. J., Berry, D. S., Jenness, T., et al. 2014, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 485, Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems XXIII, ed. N. Manset & P. Forshay, 391
da Cunha, E., Walter, F., Smail, I. R., et al. 2015, The Astrophysical Journal, 806, 110
Delvecchio, I., Daddi, E., Sargent, M. T., et al. 2021, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 647, A123
Dempsey, J. T., Friberg, P., Jenness, T., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 430, 2534
Dole, H., Lagache, G., Puget, J.-L., et al. 2006, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 451, 417
Donnan, C. T., McLure, R. J., Dunlop, J. S., et al. 2024, JWST PRIMER: A New Multi-Field Determination of the Evolving Galaxy UV Luminosity Function at Redshifts $\mathbf{z \simeq 9-15}$, doi:10.48550/arXiv.2403.03171
Driver, S. P., Andrews, S. K., da Cunha, E., et al. 2018, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 475, 2891
Dudzevičiūtė, U., Smail, I., Swinbank, A. M., et al. 2020, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 494, 3828
—. 2021, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 500, 942
Dunlop, J. S., McLure, R. J., Biggs, A. D., et al. 2017, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronom- ical Society, 466, 861
Dye, S., Eales, S. A., Aretxaga, I., et al. 2008, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 386, 1107
Eales, S., Lilly, S., Gear, W., et al. 1999, The Astrophysical Journal, 515, 518
Fermi-LAT Collaboration, Abdollahi, S., Ackermann, M., et al. 2018, Science, 362, 1031
Fixsen, D. J., Dwek, E., Mather, J. C., Bennett, C. L., & Shafer, R. A. 1998, The Astrophysical Journal, 508, 123
Franceschini, A. 1982, Astrophysics and Space Science, 86, 3
Franco, M., Elbaz, D., Béthermin, M., et al. 2018, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 620, A152
Fujimoto, S., Kohno, K., Ouchi, M., et al. 2023, ALMA Lensing Cluster Survey: Deep 1.2 Mm Number Counts and Infrared Luminosity Functions at $z\simeq1-8$, arxiv:2303.01658
Furusawa, H., Kosugi, G., Akiyama, M., et al. 2008, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 176, 1
Geach, J. E., Chapin, E. L., Coppin, K. E. K., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 432, 53
Geach, J. E., Dunlop, J. S., Halpern, M., et al. 2017, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 465, 1789
Gispert, R., Lagache, G., & Puget, J. L. 2000, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 360, 1
Greve, T. R., Bertoldi, F., Smail, I., et al. 2005, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 359, 1165
Grogin, N. A., Kocevski, D. D., Faber, S. M., et al. 2011, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 197, 35
Hainline, L. J., Blain, A. W., Smail, I., et al. 2011, The Astrophysical Journal, 740, 96
Hasinger, G., Miyaji, T., & Schmidt, M. 2005, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 441, 417
Hatsukade, B., Kohno, K., Yamaguchi, Y., et al. 2018, Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan, 70, 105
Hayward, C. C., Narayanan, D., Kereš, D., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronom- ical Society, 428, 2529
Hickox, R. C., Wardlow, J. L., Smail, I., et al. 2012, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 421, no
Hildebrandt, H., van Waerbeke, L., Scott, D., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 429, 3230
Hill, R., Masui, K. W., & Scott, D. 2018, Applied Spectroscopy, 72, 663
Hodge, J. A., Karim, A., Smail, I., et al. 2013, The Astrophysical Journal, 768, 91
Holland, W. S., Robson, E. I., Gear, W. K., et al. 1999, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 303, 659
Holland, W. S., Bintley, D., Chapin, E. L., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronom- ical Society, 430, 2513
Hsu, L.-Y., Cowie, L. L., Chen, C.-C., Barger, A. J., & Wang, W.-H. 2016, The Astrophysical Journal, 829, 25
Hsu, Q.-N., Cowie, L. L., Chen, C.-C., & Barger, A. J. 2024, The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 964, L32
Hughes, D. H., Serjeant, S., Dunlop, J., et al. 1998, Nature, 394, 241
Jenness, T., Cavanagh, B., Economou, F., & Berry, D. S. 2008, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 394, Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems XVII, ed. R. W. Argyle, P. S. Bunclark, & J. R. Lewis, 565
Karim, A., Swinbank, A. M., Hodge, J. A., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 432, 2
Kashikawa, N., Shimasaku, K., Yasuda, N., et al. 2004, Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan, 56, 1011
Koekemoer, A. M., Faber, S. M., Ferguson, H. C., et al. 2011, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 197, 36
Koprowski, M. P., Dunlop, J. S., Michałowski, M. J., et al. 2016, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 458, 4321
Lacey, C. G., Baugh, C. M., Frenk, C. S., et al. 2016, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 462, 3854
Lagos, C. d. P., da Cunha, E., Robotham, A. S. G., et al. 2020, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 499, 1948
Laigle, C., McCracken, H. J., Ilbert, O., et al. 2016, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 224, 24
Lawrence, A., Warren, S. J., Almaini, O., et al. 2007, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 379, 1599
Lim, C.-F., Wang, W.-H., Smail, I., et al. 2020a, The Astrophysical Journal, 889, 80
Lim, C.-F., Chen, C.-C., Smail, I., et al. 2020b, The Astrophysical Journal, 895, 104
Liu, D., Lang, P., Magnelli, B., et al. 2019, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 244, 40
López Fernández, R., González Delgado, R. M., Pérez, E., et al. 2018, Astronomy and Astro- physics, 615, A27
Lovell, C. C., Geach, J. E., Davé, R., Narayanan, D., & Li, Q. 2021, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 502, 772
Madau, P., & Dickinson, M. 2014, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 52, 415 Mairs, S., Dempsey, J. T., Bell, G. S., et al. 2021, The Astronomical Journal, 162, 191
Makiya, R., & Hirashita, H. 2022, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 517, 2076
Metcalfe, N., Shanks, T., Campos, A., McCracken, H. J., & Fong, R. 2001, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 323, 795
Michałowski, M. J., Dunlop, J. S., Cirasuolo, M., et al. 2012, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 541, A85
Michałowski, M. J., Dunlop, J. S., Koprowski, M. P., et al. 2017, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 469, 492
Nguyen, H. T., Schulz, B., Levenson, L., et al. 2010, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 518, L5
Noll, S., Burgarella, D., Giovannoli, E., et al. 2009, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 507, 1793
Odegard, N., Weiland, J. L., Fixsen, D. J., et al. 2019, The Astrophysical Journal, 877, 40
Oteo, I., Zwaan, M. A., Ivison, R. J., Smail, I., & Biggs, A. D. 2016, The Astrophysical Journal, 822, 36
Pearson, J., Serjeant, S., Wang, W.-H., et al. 2024, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 527, 12044
Popping, G., Walter, F., Behroozi, P., et al. 2020, The Astrophysical Journal, 891, 135
Puget, J. L., Abergel, A., Bernard, J. P., et al. 1996, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 308, L5
Reuter, C., Vieira, J. D., Spilker, J. S., et al. 2020, The Astrophysical Journal, 902, 78
Robotham, A. S. G., D’Silva, J. C. J., Windhorst, R. A., et al. 2023, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 135, 085003
Roseboom, I. G., Dunlop, J. S., Cirasuolo, M., et al. 2013, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 436, 430
Sánchez, S. F., Avila-Reese, V., Rodríguez-Puebla, A., et al. 2019, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 482, 1557
Sanders, D. B., Salvato, M., Aussel, H., et al. 2007, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 172, 86
Scheuer, P. A. G. 1957, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 53, 764
Schmidt, M., Schneider, D. P., & Gunn, J. E. 1995, The Astronomical Journal, 110, 68
Schreiber, C., Elbaz, D., Pannella, M., et al. 2018, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 609, A30
Scoville, N., Aussel, H., Brusa, M., et al. 2007, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 172, 1
Serra, P., Amblard, A., Temi, P., et al. 2011, The Astrophysical Journal, 740, 22
Shim, H., Kim, Y., Lee, D., et al. 2020, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 498, 5065
Shim, H., Lee, D., Kim, Y., et al. 2022, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 514, 2915
Simpson, J. M., Swinbank, A. M., Smail, I., et al. 2014, The Astrophysical Journal, 788, 125
Simpson, J. M., Smail, I., Wang, W.-H., et al. 2017, The Astrophysical Journal, 844, L10
Simpson, J. M., Smail, I., Swinbank, A. M., et al. 2019, The Astrophysical Journal, 880, 43
Simpson, J. M., Smail, I., Dudzevičiūtė, U., et al. 2020, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 495, 3409
Smail, I., Hogg, D. W., Yan, L., & Cohen, J. G. 1995, The Astrophysical Journal, 449, L105
Smail, I., Ivison, R. J., & Blain, A. W. 1997, The Astrophysical Journal, 490, L5
Smolčić, V., Karim, A., Miettinen, O., et al. 2015, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 576, A127
Smolčić, V., Delvecchio, I., Zamorani, G., et al. 2017, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 602, A2
Stach, S. M., Smail, I., Swinbank, A. M., et al. 2018, The Astrophysical Journal, 860, 161
Stach, S. M., Dudzevičiūtė, U., Smail, I., et al. 2019, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 487, 4648
Stach, S. M., Smail, I., Amvrosiadis, A., et al. 2021, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 504, 172
Stetson, P. B. 1987, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 99, 191
Swinbank, A. M., Simpson, J. M., Smail, I., et al. 2014, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, 438, 1267
Tacconi, L. J., Neri, R., Chapman, S. C., et al. 2006, The Astrophysical Journal, 640, 228
Ueda, Y., Akiyama, M., Hasinger, G., Miyaji, T., & Watson, M. G. 2014, The Astrophysical Journal, 786, 104
Valiante, E., Lutz, D., Sturm, E., Genzel, R., & Chapin, E. L. 2009, The Astrophysical Journal, 701, 1814
Valiante, E., Smith, M. W. L., Eales, S., et al. 2016, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 462, 3146
van der Vlugt, D., Algera, H. S. B., Hodge, J. A., et al. 2021, The Astrophysical Journal, 907, 5
Vernstrom, T., Norris, R. P., Scott, D., & Wall, J. V. 2015, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 447, 2243
Vieira, J. D., Marrone, D. P., Chapman, S. C., et al. 2013, Nature, 495, 344
Wall, J. V., Pope, A., & Scott, D. 2008, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 383, 435
Walter, F., Decarli, R., Aravena, M., et al. 2016, The Astrophysical Journal, 833, 67
Wang, L., Pearson, W. J., Cowley, W., et al. 2019, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 624, A98
Wang, W.-H., Cowie, L. L., van Saders, J., Barger, A. J., & Williams, J. P. 2007, The Astro- physical Journal, 670, L89
Wang, W.-H., Lin, W.-C., Lim, C.-F., et al. 2017, The Astrophysical Journal, 850, 37
Weaver, J. R., Kauffmann, O. B., Ilbert, O., et al. 2022, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 258, 11
Weiß, A., Kovács, A., Coppin, K., et al. 2009, The Astrophysical Journal, 707, 1201
Wilkinson, A., Almaini, O., Chen, C.-C., et al. 2017, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 464, 1380
Younger, J. D., Fazio, G. G., Huang, J.-S., et al. 2007, The Astrophysical Journal, 671, 1531
Younger, J. D., Dunlop, J. S., Peck, A. B., et al. 2008, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 387, 707
Zavala, J. A., Aretxaga, I., Geach, J. E., et al. 2017, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 464, 3369
Zavala, J. A., Aretxaga, I., Dunlop, J. S., et al. 2018, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 475, 5585
Zavala, J. A., Casey, C. M., Manning, S. M., et al. 2021, The Astrophysical Journal, 909, 165